Gut Microbiota and Hepatocellular Carcinoma: Metabolic Products and Immunotherapy Modulation.

The relationship between hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) and gut microbiota has gained attention for its impact on HCC immunotherapy. Key gut microbial metabolites, including bile acids, toll-like receptor 4, short-chain fatty acids, and bacterial toxins, contribute to HCC progression and influence immune responses through the gut-liver axis. As immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) become common in HCC treatment, modulating the gut microbiota offers new strategies to enhance ICIs efficacy. However, individual differences in microbial composition introduce challenges, with some HCC patients showing resistance to ICIs. This review summarizes the latest findings on the role of gut microbiota in HCC and explores emerging therapeutic approaches, including fecal microbiota transplantation, probiotics, antibiotics, and natural compounds. The focus is on translating these insights into personalized medicine to optimize ICIs responses and improve HCC treatment outcomes.