Historical Changes in Episodic Memory and Depressive Symptoms Among the Foreign-Born in the United States Across Midlife and Old Age

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ID: 324409
2026
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Abstract
BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Previous studies have documented a health advantage among the foreign-born, but less is known regarding whether this advantage persists across birth cohorts of foreign-born adults in midlife and old age. We examined historical change in episodic memory and depressive symptoms among foreign-born middle-aged and older adults, and explored the moderating role of gender, race, education, age at immigration, and country or region of origin. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: Multilevel models were applied to longitudinal data from the Health and Retirement Study (HRS; data collection periods: 1994-2018; N = 5,030, 56% women, birth year: M = 1945, range: 1890 to 1968) to examine birth cohort differences in episodic memory and depressive symptoms among the foreign-born in midlife and old age. RESULTS: Later-born cohorts exhibited stability in episodic memory and decreases in depressive symptoms compared with earlier-born cohorts. The magnitude of historical change differed by race, education, and country or region of origin. Educational attainment provided a less pronounced protective effect on memory and depressive symptoms across birth cohorts. Foreign-born Hispanics and individuals migrating from Mexico demonstrated stronger historical declines in depressive symptoms, whereas individuals migrating from Europe demonstrated weaker historical declines in depressive symptoms across birth cohorts. Age at immigration and gender did not moderate historical change. DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS: Our discussion elaborates on the significance of the findings in relation to the immigrant health paradox and expands on the moderating role of education, race, and country or region of origin for the cognitive and mental health trajectories of the foreign-born.
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Authors Yesenia Cruz–Carrillo, Frank J. Infurna
Journal the gerontologist
Year 2026
DOI
10.1093/geront/gnag177
URL
https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/gnag177
Keywords Keywords not found

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