Hazard mitigation and stabilization of subgrade slopes: advances and comparisons between China and Europe

Abstract With the continuous development of global transportation infrastructure, instability of subgrade slopes poses critical safety challenges, particularly in regions with complex geological structures and varying climates. Traditional risk assessment and stabilization measures under extreme weather conditions often exhibit limited adaptability and accuracy, making them insufficient to meet the safety requirements of current transportation projects. Consequently, researchers have explored improved frameworks for slope hazard mitigation, leading to a multitude of significant advances in recent years. Employing a systematic review combined with a comparative case study methodology, this paper analyzes 2276 publications from 1991 to 2025 and examines five representative cases to synthesize research advances in China and Europe. The methodological framework encompasses the influencing factors of slope stability, risk assessment approaches, monitoring and early-warning technologies, as well as stabilization measures. The comparative analysis reveals distinct management philosophies: China prioritizes engineering control and site-specific monitoring, whereas Europe emphasizes risk adaptation and regional resilience, demonstrating substantial complementarity between their respective strengths. Future collaboration should prioritize the formulation of unified technical standards and cross-border data sharing mechanisms. Finally, prospective directions are proposed with regard to green engineering, intelligent early warning, and climate-resilient design to support sustainable infrastructure development.