blackbody radiation and the carbon particle

Since the days of Kirchhoff, blackbody radiation has been considered to be a universal process, independent of the nature and shape of the emitter. Nonetheless, in promoting this concept, Kirchhoff did require, at the minimum, thermal equilibrium with an enclosure. Recently, the author stated (P.-M. Robitaille, IEEE Trans. Plasma Sci., 2003, v.31(6), 1263-1267; P.-M. Robitaille, Progr. in Phys., 2006, v.2, 22-23), that blackbody radiation is not universal and has called for a return to Stewart's law (P.-M. Robitaille, Progr. in Phys., 2008, v.3, 30-35). In this work, a historical analysis of thermal radiation is presented. It is demonstrated that soot, or lampblack, was the standard for blackbody experiments throughout the 1800s. Furthermore, graphite and carbon black continue to play a central role in the construction of blackbody cavities. The advent of universality is reviewed through the writings of Pierre Prevost, Pierre Louis Dulong, Alexis Therese Petit, Jean Baptiste Joseph Fourier, Simeon Denis Poisson, Frederick Herve de la Provostaye, Paul Quentin Desain, Balfour Stewart, Gustav Robert Kirchhoff, and Max Karl Ernst Ludwig Planck. These writings illustrate that blackbody radiation, as experimentally produced in cavities and as discussed theoretically, has remained dependent on thermal equilibrium with at least the smallest carbon particle. Finally, Planck's treatment of Kirchhoff's law is examined in detail and the shortcomings of his derivation are outlined. It is shown once again, that universality does not exist. Only Stewart's law of thermal emission, not Kirchhoff's, is fully valid.