Impact of Maternal Demographic and Socioeconomic Factors on the Association Between Particulate Matter and Adverse Birth Outcomes: a Systematic Review and Meta-analysis.

Numerous studies conducted in the United States found associations between prenatal exposure to particulate matter (PM) and adverse birth outcomes, and some studies identified vulnerable populations, including certain racial/ethnic groups and people with low-socioeconomic status. However, their findings are not always consistent. In this review, we compared the risk of adverse birth outcomes due to PM exposures among subpopulations and investigated whether any particular population is more vulnerable.We selected U.S. studies examining associations between PM exposure during pregnancy and birth outcomes that included results for effect modification by race/ethnicity and/or maternal education. We summarized the findings for various sizes of PM and birth outcomes. Meta-analysis was conducted to quantify vulnerable race/ethnicity for the association between fine PM (PM) and birthweight.In total, 19 studies were assessed, and PM-related risks of adverse birth outcomes, particularly those related to fetal growth, likely differ across subpopulations. A meta-analysis from five studies showed that a 10 μg/m increase of PM during the full-gestation reduced birthweight by 21.9 g (95% confidence interval 11.7, 32.0), 15.7 g (10.1, 21.4), 9.3 g (2.7, 15.8), and 5.8 g (- 9.0, 20.7) for Black, White, Hispanic, and Asian mothers, respectively.Our review indicated that Black mothers and mothers with low educational attainment are more vulnerable subpopulations. More investigation is needed for effect modification by other maternal factors, such as household income. Characterizing and quantifying vulnerable subpopulations are essential for addressing environmental justice since it can help regulatory agencies allocate resources and design policy interventions.