dying to be noticed: epigenetic regulation of immunogenic cell death for cancer immunotherapy

Abstract

Immunogenic cell death (ICD) activates both innate and adaptive arms of the immune system during apoptotic cancer cell death. With respect to cancer immunotherapy, the process of ICD elicits enhanced adjuvanticity and antigenicity from dying cancer cells and consequently, promotes the development of clinically desired antitumor immunity. Cancer ICD requires the presentation of various “hallmarks” of immunomodulation, which include the cell-surface translocation of calreticulin, production of type I interferons, and release of high-mobility group box-1 and ATP, which through their compatible actions induce an immune response against cancer cells. Interestingly, recent reports investigating the use of epigenetic modifying drugs as anticancer therapeutics have identified several connections to ICD hallmarks. Epigenetic modifiers have a direct effect on cell viability and appear to fundamentally change the immunogenic properties of cancer cells, by actively subverting tumor microenvironment-associated immunoevasion and aiding in the development of an antitumor immune response. In this review, we critically discuss the current evidence that identifies direct links between epigenetic modifications and ICD hallmarks, and put forward an otherwise poorly understood role for epigenetic drugs as ICD inducers. We further discuss potential therapeutic innovations that aim to induce ICD during epigenetic drug therapy, generating highly efficacious cancer immunotherapies.